diff --git a/src/commands/deploy.ts b/src/commands/deploy.ts
index 32d4db2..fb36841 100644
--- a/src/commands/deploy.ts
+++ b/src/commands/deploy.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+
 import { Command } from 'commander';
 import {
   resolveProjectConfig,
@@ -35,13 +36,17 @@ interface DeployCommandFlags {
 export function createDeployCommand(
   options: DeployCommandOptions = {},
 ): Command {
-  const cwd = options.cwd ?? process.cwd;
-  const output = options.output ?? new TerminalOutput();
-  const resolveConfig = options.resolveConfig ?? resolveProjectConfig;
-  const resolvePlan = options.resolvePlan ?? resolveTestnetDeploymentPlan;
+  const {
+    cwd = () => process.cwd(),
+    output = new TerminalOutput(),
+    resolveConfig = resolveProjectConfig,
+    resolvePlan = resolveTestnetDeploymentPlan,
+  } = options;
 
   return new Command('deploy')
-    .description('Deploy a supported StellarForge project to Stellar Testnet.')
+    .description(
+      'Deploy a supported StellarForge project to Stellar Testnet.',
+    )
     .option(
       '--network <network>',
       'Deployment network. CLI value overrides stellarforge.config.json.',
@@ -52,19 +57,27 @@ export function createDeployCommand(
     )
     .action(async (flags: DeployCommandFlags) => {
       const projectRoot = cwd();
+
       const overrides: ProjectConfigOverrides = {
-        ...(flags.network === undefined ? {} : { network: flags.network }),
-        ...(flags.source === undefined ? {} : { identity: flags.source }),
+        ...(flags.network === undefined
+          ? {}
+          : { network: flags.network }),
+        ...(flags.source === undefined
+          ? {}
+          : { identity: flags.source }),
       };
+
       const configuration = resolveConfig(projectRoot, overrides);
 
-      if (configuration.network === undefined) {
+      const { network, identity } = configuration;
+
+      if (network === undefined) {
         throw new ValidationCliError(
           'Deployment network is required. Pass `--network testnet` or set an explicit network in stellarforge.config.json.',
         );
       }
 
-      if (configuration.identity === undefined) {
+      if (identity === undefined) {
         throw new ValidationCliError(
           'Deployment identity is required. Pass `--source <identity>` or set a named identity in stellarforge.config.json.',
         );
@@ -72,11 +85,15 @@ export function createDeployCommand(
 
       const plan = resolvePlan({
         cwd: projectRoot,
-        network: configuration.network,
-        source: configuration.identity,
+        network,
+        source: identity,
       });
 
       output.info('Deploying smart contract to Stellar Testnet.');
-      await superviseDevProcesses(plan, { ...options, output });
+
+      await superviseDevProcesses(plan, {
+        ...options,
+        output,
+      });
     });
 }
diff --git a/src/commands/dev.ts b/src/commands/dev.ts
index aba5ec5..b80dda1 100644
--- a/src/commands/dev.ts
+++ b/src/commands/dev.ts
@@ -1,9 +1,13 @@
+
 import { Command } from 'commander';
 import {
   superviseDevProcesses,
   type DevOrchestratorOptions,
 } from '../dev/orchestrator.js';
-import { resolveDevProcessPlan, type DevProcessSpec } from '../dev/project.js';
+import {
+  resolveDevProcessPlan,
+  type DevProcessSpec,
+} from '../dev/project.js';
 import { TerminalOutput } from '../output/terminal.js';
 
 export interface DevCommandOptions extends DevOrchestratorOptions {
@@ -11,18 +15,31 @@ export interface DevCommandOptions extends DevOrchestratorOptions {
   readonly resolvePlan?: (cwd: string) => readonly DevProcessSpec[];
 }
 
-export function createDevCommand(options: DevCommandOptions = {}): Command {
-  const cwd = options.cwd ?? process.cwd;
-  const output = options.output ?? new TerminalOutput();
-  const resolvePlan = options.resolvePlan ?? resolveDevProcessPlan;
+export function createDevCommand(
+  options: DevCommandOptions = {},
+): Command {
+  const {
+    cwd = () => process.cwd(),
+    resolvePlan = resolveDevProcessPlan,
+    output = new TerminalOutput(),
+  } = options;
 
   return new Command('dev')
     .description('Start development processes for a StellarForge project.')
     .action(async () => {
-      const plan = resolvePlan(cwd());
+      const workingDirectory = cwd();
+      const plan = resolvePlan(workingDirectory);
+      const processCount = plan.length;
+      const processLabel =
+        processCount === 1 ? 'process' : 'processes';
+
       output.info(
-        `Starting ${plan.length} development process${plan.length === 1 ? '' : 'es'}.`,
+        `Starting ${processCount} development ${processLabel}.`,
       );
-      await superviseDevProcesses(plan, { ...options, output });
+
+      await superviseDevProcesses(plan, {
+        ...options,
+        output,
+      });
     });
 }
diff --git a/src/commands/root.ts b/src/commands/root.ts
index b6cab2d..3539b85 100644
--- a/src/commands/root.ts
+++ b/src/commands/root.ts
@@ -1,3 +1,4 @@
+
 import { Command } from 'commander';
 import { resolveCliVersion } from '../version.js';
 import { createDeployCommand } from './deploy.js';
@@ -6,19 +7,32 @@ import { createDoctorCommand } from './doctor.js';
 import { createNewCommand } from './new.js';
 import { createTestCommand } from './test.js';
 
-// Commander implements `unknownCommand()` publicly but omits it from typings.
+// Commander exposes unknownCommand() at runtime but omits it from its typings.
 interface UnknownCommandReporter {
   unknownCommand(): never;
 }
 
-function applyUsageErrorHandling(command: Command, remediation: string): void {
+function applyUsageErrorHandling(
+  command: Command,
+  remediation: string,
+): void {
   command
     .exitOverride()
     .showHelpAfterError(remediation)
     .showSuggestionAfterError(true);
 }
 
-export function createRootCommand(version = resolveCliVersion()): Command {
+function reportUnknownCommand(command: Command): void {
+  if (command.args.length === 0) {
+    return;
+  }
+
+  (command as unknown as UnknownCommandReporter).unknownCommand();
+}
+
+export function createRootCommand(
+  version = resolveCliVersion(),
+): Command {
   const program = new Command()
     .name('stellarforge')
     .description(
@@ -26,29 +40,34 @@ export function createRootCommand(version = resolveCliVersion()): Command {
     )
     .usage('[options] [command]')
     .version(version)
-    // Operands reach the action so unknown commands are reported as such
-    // rather than as excess arguments.
+    // Allow operands through so the root action can report unknown commands.
     .allowExcessArguments()
     .action((_options: unknown, command: Command) => {
-      if (command.args.length > 0) {
-        (command as unknown as UnknownCommandReporter).unknownCommand();
-      }
-    })
-    .addCommand(createDoctorCommand())
-    .addCommand(createNewCommand())
-    .addCommand(createDevCommand())
-    .addCommand(createTestCommand())
-    .addCommand(createDeployCommand());
-
-  const commandNames = program.commands.map((command) => command.name());
+      reportUnknownCommand(command);
+    });
+
+  const subcommands = [
+    createDoctorCommand(),
+    createNewCommand(),
+    createDevCommand(),
+    createTestCommand(),
+    createDeployCommand(),
+  ];
+
+  for (const command of subcommands) {
+    program.addCommand(command);
+  }
+
+  const commandNames = subcommands
+    .map((command) => command.name())
+    .join(', ');
+
   applyUsageErrorHandling(
     program,
-    `Available commands: ${commandNames.join(', ')}.\nRun 'stellarforge --help' for usage.`,
+    `Available commands: ${commandNames}.\nRun 'stellarforge --help' for usage.`,
   );
 
-  // `addCommand` does not inherit parent settings, so subcommand usage errors
-  // must be configured explicitly to share the root's exit-code mapping.
-  for (const command of program.commands) {
+  for (const command of subcommands) {
     applyUsageErrorHandling(
       command,
       `Run 'stellarforge ${command.name()} --help' for usage.`,